INTERNATIONAL CONNECTIVITY Version 8 - April 15, 1993 Please send corrections, information and/or comments to: Larry Landweber Computer Sciences Dept. University of Wisconsin - Madison 1210 W. Dayton St. Madison, WI 53706 lhl@cs.wisc.edu FAX 1-608-265-2635 Include details, e.g., on connections, sites, contacts, protocols, etc. Thanks to the many people from around the world who have provided information. This version (postscript, ditroff, text forms), maps in postscript, and earlier versions may also be obtained by anonymous ftp from ftp.cs.wisc.edu in the connectivity_table directory. In the following, "BITNET" is used generically to refer to BITNET plus similar networks around the world (e.g., EARN, NETNORTH, GULF- NET, etc.). SUMMARY NUMBER OF ENTITIES WITH INTERNATIONAL NETWORK CONNECTIVITY = 127 BITNET Col. 2 (Entities with international BITNET links.) b: minimal, one to five domestic BITNET sites, 18 entities B: widespread, more than five domestic BITNET sites, 33 entities IP INTERNET Col. 3 (Entities with international IP Internet links.) I: = operational, accesible from entire IP Internet, 54 entities i: = operational, not accesible via the NSFNET backbone, 2 entities UUCP Col. 4 (Entities with domestic UUCP sites which are connected to the Global Multiprotocol Open Internet.) u: minimal, one to five domestic UUCP sites, 43 entities U: widespread, more than five domestic UUCP sites, 64 entities FIDONET Col. 5 (Entities with domestic FIDONET sites which are con- nected to the Global Multiprotocol Open Internet) f: minimal, one to five domestic FIDONET sites, 20 entities F: widespread, more than five domestic FIDONET sites, 59 entities OSI Col. 6 (Entities with international X.400 links to domestic sites which are connected to the Global Multiprotocol Open Internet). o: minimal, one to five domestic X.400 sites, 8 entities O: widespread, more than five domestic X.400 sites, 23 entities Email connections to Albania, Algeria, Angola, Gambia, Malawi, Mongolia, Morocco, Qatar, St. Lucia, and Vietnam have been reported but have not been verified or are not yet stable and hence are not included in the table or in the above totals. ----- AF Afghanistan (Democratic Republic of) ----- AL Albania (Republic of) ----- DZ Algeria (People's Democratic Republic of) ----- AS American Samoa ----- AD Andorra (Principality of) ----- AO Angola (People's Republic of) ----- AI Anguilla -I--- AQ Antarctica ----- AG Antigua and Barbuda BIUF- AR Argentina (Argentine Republic) --u-- AM Armenia ----- AW Aruba -IUFo AU Australia BIUFO AT Austria (Republic of) --U-- AZ Azerbaijan ----- BS Bahamas (Commonwealth of the) b---- BH Bahrain (State of) ----- BD Bangladesh (People's Republic of) ----- BB Barbados --UF- BY Belarus BIUFO BE Belgium (Kingdom of) ----- BZ Belize ----- BJ Benin (People's Republic of) --uf- BM Bermuda ----- BT Bhutan (Kingdom of) --U-- BO Bolivia (Republic of) ----- BA Bosnia-Hercegovina ---f- BW Botswana (Republic of) ----- BV Bouvet Island BIUFO BR Brazil (Federative Republic of) ----- IO British Indian Ocean Territory ----- BN Brunei Darussalam biUF- BG Bulgaria (Republic of) --u-- BF Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) ----- BI Burundi (Republic of) ----- KH Cambodia --u-- CM Cameroon (Republic of) BIUFO CA Canada ----- CV Cape Verde (Republic of) ----- KY Cayman Islands ----- CF Central African Republic ----- TD Chad (Republic of) BIUF- CL Chile (Republic of) --ufO CN China (People's Republic of) ----- CX Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) ----- CC Cocos (Keeling) Islands B-u-- CO Colombia (Republic of) ----- KM Comoros (Islamic Federal Republic of the) --u-- CG Congo (Republic of the) ----- CK Cook Islands bIu-- CR Costa Rica (Republic of) --u-- CI Cote d'Ivoire (Republic of) -Iufo HR Croatia --U-- CU Cuba (Republic of) bI--- CY Cyprus (Republic of) BIUF- CZ Czech Republic BIUFO DK Denmark (Kingdom of) ----- DJ Djibouti (Republic of) ----- DM Dominica (Commonwealth of) --Uf- DO Dominican Republic ----- TP East Timor bIu-- EC Ecuador (Republic of) b-U-- EG Egypt (Arab Republic of) ----- SV El Salvador (Republic of) ----- GQ Equatorial Guinea (Republic of) -IUF- EE Estonia (Republic of) ---F- ET Ethiopia (People's Democratic Republic of) ----- FK Falkland Islands (Malvinas) ----- FO Faroe Islands --u-- FJ Fiji (Republic of) BIUFO FI Finland (Republic of) BIUFO FR France (French Republic) --u-- GF French Guiana --u-- PF French Polynesia ----- TF French Southern Territories ----- GA Gabon (Gabonese Republic) ----- GM Gambia (Republic of the) --UF- GE Georgia (Republic of) BIUFO DE Germany (Federal Republic of) ---F- GH Ghana (Republic of ) ----- GI Gibraltar BIUFO GR Greece (Hellenic Republic) -I-f- GL Greenland --u-- GD Grenada b-u-- GP Guadeloupe (French Department of) ---F- GU Guam --u-- GT Guatemala (Republic of) ----- GN Guinea (Republic of) ----- GW Guinea-Bissau (Republic of) ----- GY Guyana (Republic of) ----- HT Haiti (Republic of) ----- HM Heard and McDonald Islands ----- HN Honduras (Republic of) BI-F- HK Hong Kong (Hisiangkang, Xianggang) BIUFo HU Hungary (Republic of) -IUFo IS Iceland (Republic of) bIUfO IN India (Republic of) --u-- ID Indonesia (Republic of) b---- IR Iran (Islamic Republic of) ----- IQ Iraq (Republic of) BIUFO IE Ireland BIUF- IL Israel (State of) BIUFO IT Italy (Italian Republic) --u-- JM Jamaica BIUF- JP Japan ----- JO Jordan (Hashemite Kingdom of) --Uf- KZ Kazakhstan ---f- KE Kenya (Republic of) --u-- KI Kiribati (Republic of) ----- KP Korea (Democratic People's Republic of) BIUFO KR Korea (Republic of ) -I--- KW Kuwait (State of) --U-- KG Kyrgyzstan ----- LA Lao People's Democratic Republic -IUF- LV Latvia (Republic of) ----- LB Lebanon (Lebanese Republic) --u-- LS Lesotho (Kingdom of) ----- LR Liberia (Republic of) ----- LY Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ----- LI Liechtenstein (Principality of) --UFo LT Lithuania bIUFo LU Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of) ---F- MO Macau (Ao-me'n) ----- ?? Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of) ----- MG Madagascar (Democratic Republic of) ----- MW Malawi (Republic of) bIUF- MY Malaysia ----- MV Maldives (Republic of) --u-- ML Mali (Republic of) --u-- MT Malta (Republic of) ----- MH Marshall Islands (Republic of the) ----- MQ Martinique (French Department of) ----- MR Mauritania (Islamic Republic of) ---f- MU Mauritius BIuF- MX Mexico (United Mexican States) ----- FM Micronesia (Federated States of) --UF- MD Moldova (Republic of) ----- MC Monaco (Principality of) ----- MN Mongolia (Mongolian People's Republic) ----- MS Montserrat ----- MA Morocco (Kingdom of) --u-- MZ Mozambique (People's Republic of) ----- MM Myanmar (Union of) --u-- NA Namibia (Republic of) ----- NR Nauru (Republic of) ----- NP Nepal (Kingdom of) BIUFO NL Netherlands (Kingdom of the) ----- AN Netherlands Antilles ----- NT Neutral Zone (between Saudi Arabia and Iraq) --U-- NC New Caledonia -IUF- NZ New Zealand --u-- NI Nicaragua (Republic of) --u-- NE Niger (Republic of the) ----- NG Nigeria (Federal Republic of) ----- NU Niue ----- NF Norfolk Island ----- MP Northern Mariana Islands (Commonwealth of the) BIUFO NO Norway (Kingdom of) ----- OM Oman (Sultanate of) --U-- PK Pakistan (Islamic Republic of) ----- PW Palau (Republic of) b-uF- PA Panama (Republic of) --u-- PG Papua New Guinea --u-- PY Paraguay (Republic of) --Uf- PE Peru (Republic of) --uF- PH Philippines (Republic of the) ----- PN Pitcairn BIUF- PL Poland (Republic of) bIUFO PT Portugal (Portuguese Republic) bIUF- PR Puerto Rico ----- QA Qatar (State of) --u-- RE Re'union (French Department of) B--f- RO Romania BiUF- RU Russian Federation ----- RW Rwanda (Rwandese Republic) ----- SH Saint Helena ----- KN Saint Kitts and Nevis ----- LC Saint Lucia ----- PM Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French Department of) ----- VC Saint Vincent and the Grenadines ----- WS Samoa (Independent State of) ----- SM San Marino (Republic of) ----- ST Sao Tome and Principe (Democratic Republic of) B---- SA Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of) --Uf- SN Senegal (Republic of) --u-- SC Seychelles (Republic of) ----- SL Sierra Leone (Republic of) bIuF- SG Singapore (Republic of) bIUF- SK Slovakia -IUFO SI Slovenia ----- SB Solomon Islands ----- SO Somalia (Somali Democratic Republic) -IUFO ZA South Africa (Republic of) BIUFO ES Spain (Kingdom of) --U-- LK Sri Lanka (Democratic Socialist Republic of) ----- SD Sudan (Democratic Republic of the) --u-- SR Suriname (Republic of) ----- SJ Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands ----- SZ Swaziland (Kingdom of) BIUFo SE Sweden (Kingdom of) BIUFO CH Switzerland (Swiss Confederation) ----- SY Syria (Syrian Arab Republic) BIuF- TW Taiwan, Province of China --uf- TJ Tajikistan ---f- TZ Tanzania (United Republic of) -IUF- TH Thailand (Kingdom of) --u-- TG Togo (Togolese Republic) ----- TK Tokelau ----- TO Tonga (Kingdom of) --u-- TT Trinidad and Tobago (Republic of) bIUfo TN Tunisia BI-F- TR Turkey (Republic of) --U-- TM Turkmenistan ----- TC Turks and Caicos Islands ----- TV Tuvalu ---f- UG Uganda (Republic of) --UF- UA Ukraine ----- AE United Arab Emirates bIUFO GB United Kingdom (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) BIUFO US United States (United States of America) ----- UM United States Minor Outlying Islands --UF- UY Uruguay (Eastern Republic of) --UF- UZ Uzbekistan --u-- VU Vanuatu (Republic of, formerly New Hebrides) ----- VA Vatican City State (Holy See) -IU-- VE Venezuela (Republic of) ----- VN Vietnam (Socialist Republic of) ----- VG Virgin Islands (British) ---f- VI Virgin Islands (U.S.) ----- WF Wallis and Futuna Islands ----- EH Western Sahara ----- YE Yemen (Republic of) ----- YU Yugoslavia (Socialist Federal Republic of) ----- ZR Zaire (Republic of) --uf- ZM Zambia (Republic of) --uf- ZW Zimbabwe (Republic of) Copyright 1993 Lawrence H. Landweber and the Internet Society. Unlimited permission to copy or use is hereby granted subject to inclusion of this copyright notice.
Wednesday, January 30, 2013
INTERNATIONAL CONNECTIVITY -Version 8 - April 15, 1993
Tuesday, January 29, 2013
Google Robots
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Disallow: /c/ Disallow: /cbk Allow: /cbk?output=tile&cb_client=maps_sv Disallow: /recharge/dashboard/car Disallow: /recharge/dashboard/static/ Disallow: /translate_a/ Disallow: /translate_c Disallow: /translate_f Disallow: /translate_static/ Disallow: /translate_suggestion Disallow: /profiles/me Allow: /profiles Disallow: /s2/profiles/me Allow: /s2/profiles Allow: /s2/photos Allow: /s2/static Disallow: /s2 Allow: /s2/search/social Disallow: /transconsole/portal/ Disallow: /gcc/ Disallow: /aclk Disallow: /cse? Disallow: /cse/home Disallow: /cse/panel Disallow: /cse/manage Disallow: /tbproxy/ Disallow: /imesync/ Disallow: /shenghuo/search? Disallow: /support/forum/search? Disallow: /reviews/polls/ Disallow: /hosted/images/ Disallow: /ppob/? Disallow: /ppob? Disallow: /ig/add? Disallow: /adwordsresellers Disallow: /accounts/o8 Allow: /accounts/o8/id Disallow: /topicsearch?q= Disallow: /xfx7/ Disallow: /squared/api Disallow: /squared/search Disallow: /squared/table Disallow: /toolkit/ Allow: /toolkit/*.html Disallow: /globalmarketfinder/ Allow: /globalmarketfinder/*.html Disallow: /qnasearch? Disallow: /app/updates Disallow: /sidewiki/entry/ Disallow: /quality_form? Disallow: /labs/popgadget/search Disallow: /buzz/post Disallow: /compressiontest/ Disallow: /analytics/reporting/ Disallow: /analytics/admin/ Disallow: /analytics/web/ Disallow: /analytics/feeds/ Disallow: /analytics/settings/ Disallow: /alerts/ Disallow: /ads/preferences/ Allow: /ads/preferences/html/ Allow: /ads/preferences/plugin Disallow: /ads/search Disallow: /settings/ads/onweb/ Disallow: /phone/compare/? Allow: /alerts/manage Allow: /alerts/remove Disallow: /travel/clk Disallow: /hotelfinder/rpc Disallow: /flights/rpc Disallow: /commercesearch/services/ Disallow: /evaluation/ Disallow: /chrome/browser/mobile/tour Disallow: /plus/history/tasks/ Disallow: /compare/*/apply* Disallow: /forms/perks/ Disallow: /baraza/*/search Disallow: /baraza/*/report Disallow: /now/topics/ Disallow: /shopping/suppliers/search Sitemap: http://www.gstatic.com/culturalinstitute/sitemaps/www_google_com_culturalinstitute/sitemap-index.xml Sitemap: http://www.google.com/hostednews/sitemap_index.xml Sitemap: http://www.google.com/sitemaps_webmasters.xml Sitemap: http://www.google.com/ventures/sitemap_ventures.xml Sitemap: http://www.gstatic.com/dictionary/static/sitemaps/sitemap_index.xml Sitemap: http://www.gstatic.com/earth/gallery/sitemaps/sitemap.xml Sitemap: http://www.gstatic.com/s2/sitemaps/profiles-sitemap.xml Sitemap: http://www.gstatic.com/trends/websites/sitemaps/sitemapindex.xml
Prime Minister Vajpayee's letter - The Nuclear Weapon
The following is the text of a letter sent to President Clinton from
Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee:
Dear Mr. President,
You would already be aware of the underground nuclear tests carried out in India. In this letter, I
would like to explain the rationale for the tests.
I have been deeply concerned at the deterioriating security environment, specially the nuclear
environment, faced by India for some years past. We have an overt nuclear weapon state on our
borders, a state which committed armed aggression against India in 1962. Although our relations with
that country have improved in the last decade or so, an atmosphere of distrust persists mainly due to
the unresolved border problem. To add to the distrust that country has materially helped another
neighbour of ours to become a covert nuclear weapons state. At the hands of this bitter neighbor we
have suffered three aggressions in the last 50 years. And for the last ten years we have been the
victim of unremitting terrorism and militancy sponsored by it in several parts of our country, specially
Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir. Fortunately, the faith of the people in our democratic system as also
their patriotism has enabled India to counter the activities of the terrorists and militants aided and
abetted from abroad.
The series of tests are limited in number and pose no danger to any country which has no inimical
intentions towards India. We value our friendship and cooperation with your country and you
personally. We hope that you will show understanding of our concern for India's security.
I assure you that India will continue to work with your country in a multilateral or bilateral framework
to promote the cause of nuclear disarmament. Our commitment to participate in non-discriminatory
and verifiable global disarmament measures is amply demonstrated by our adherence to the two
conventions on Biological and Chemical Weapons. In particular we are ready to participate in the
negotiations to be held in Geneva in the Conference on Disarmament for the conclusion of a fissile
material cut-off treaty.
I enclose for your information the text of the press statement issued after the nuclear tests were
carried out today. I close with the expression of my highest consideration for your country and
yourself.
Yours sincerely,
A.B. VAJPAYEE
Press Release - Calcutta Stock Exchange
PRESS RELEASE
===== =======
Trading Highlight for 28-01-2013 through CSTAR
==============================================
No. of Scrips : 6131
Number of Scrips Traded : 18
No. of Trades : 759
Volume of Share Traded : 754122
Turnover (in Rs.) : 159235460
Number of Orders : 980
Number of Participating Brokers / Active Users : 29 / 30
Oddlot Trading Highlight for 28-01-2013 through CSTAR
======================================================
No. of Trades : 0
Number of Scrips Traded : 0
Volume of Share Traded : 0
Turnover (in Rs.) : 0
Number of Orders : 0
DEMAT Trading Highlight for 28-01-2013 through CSTAR
======================================================
No. of Trades : 759
Number of Scrips Traded : 18
Volume of Share Traded : 754122
Turnover (in Rs.) : 159235460
Number of Orders : 980
INDEX Prev Open High Low Close
===== ==== ==== ==== === =====
CSE40 6922.90 6922.90 6979.18 6965.11 6966.32
Note:Index with new Scrip Baskets; Base= 2000 for CSE-40 & Base =100 for CSE as on end of March'96
Please treat CSE-40 as Calcutta Index.
GROUP : D TurnOver Details for Top 20 Scrips
Scrip Name No. of Shares Value(Rs)
========== ============= =========
STATE BANK OF INDIA 11392 28477099
INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES 7800 21910016
ECOWAVE INFOTECH LTD. 61530 20144922
BLUEPRINT SECURITIES LTD 59400 18373120
SHREE SECURITIES LTD 41500 11412500
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY (INDIA) LTD 27550 9019870
TTI ENTERPRISE LIMITED 305000 7686000
ACCESS GLOBAL LTD. 28200 7365840
QUEST FINANCIAL SERVICS LTD 83000 7085400
BSR FINANCE & CONSTRUCTION LTD 34300 6816650
BAKRA PRATISTHAN LTD. 17050 6095375
SCAN INFRASTRUCTURE LTD. 14650 5723755
VINDUS HOLDINGS LTD. 13800 4236600
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED 2000 3202000
R G F CAPITAL MARKETS LTD 28500 1014600
CONCRETE CREDIT LTD. 2200 546150
ARNOLD HOLDING LTD 15000 113000
SANTOSH INDUSTRIES LTD 1250 12562
GROUP : D Top 20 Gainers
Scrip Name Current Close Prev Close % Change
========== ============= ========== ========
ARNOLD HOLDING LTD 7.60 7.50 1.33
R G F CAPITAL MARKETS LTD 35.60 35.55 0.14
INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES 2809.20 2805.30 0.14
GROUP : D Top 20 Losers
Scrip Name Current Close Prev Close % Change
========== ============= ========== ========
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED 1601.50 1611.30 -0.61
STATE BANK OF INDIA 2492.00 2503.90 -0.48
BSR FINANCE & CONSTRUCTION LTD 199.00 199.10 -0.05
General Manager, Information Technology Division
Calcutta Stock Exchange Ltd.
Monday, January 28, 2013
INDIA POLIO FACT SHEET
Cases
in 2011: 1 (last case 13 January 2011)
Cases
in 2010: 42
Cases
in 2009: 741
Cases
in 1991: 6,028
Cases
in 1985: 150,000
Last
wild poliovirus type 1 (WPV1) case: 13 January 2011, Howrah, West Bengal
Last
wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2) case: October 1999, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh
Last
wild poliovirus type 3 (WPV3) case: 22 October 2010, Pakur, Jharkhand
Last positive case from monthly
environmental sewage sampling (conducted in Delhi, Mumbai and Patna): November
2010, Mumbai
Number of Supplementary Immunization
Activities in 2011:
- 2 National Immunization Days (NIDs) immunizing 172 million children <5
years in five days
- 7 Sub-National Immunization Days (sNIDs) immunizing 50-70 million
children each
- 1 Mop-up Emergency Activity immunizing 2.6 million children
Number
of Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) doses administered in 2011: 900 million
SITUATION
IN 2012
·
India has made
unprecedented progress against polio in the last two years, reporting only
one case of polio in 2011, on 13 January, compared with 42 polio cases in
2010 and 741 cases in 2009. The lone
polio case in 2011 was reported in a two-year-old girl in Howrah, close to
Kolkata, West Bengal.
·
On 13 January, 2012,
India will reach a major milestone in the history of polio eradication – a
12-month period without any case of polio being recorded. This date marks the unprecedented progress in India
and is an endorsement of the effectiveness of the polio eradication strategies
and their implementation in India.
·
Since the launch of the Global Polio Eradication
Initiative in 1988, the incidence of wild poliovirus has reduced by 99 per cent
– from 350,000 children paralyzed or killed annually in 125 endemic countries
in 1988 to 620 cases reported in 16 countries in 2011 (as of 3 January, 2012).
In 2006, the number of polio-endemic countries (countries that have never stopped indigenous wild poliovirus
transmission) was reduced to four – India, Nigeria, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
·
If all testing for WPV
in India through January – including laboratory analysis of acute flaccid
paralysis cases with onset up to mid-January and environmental sewage sampling
– returns negative, India will
officially be deemed to have stopped indigenous WPV and will be removed from
the list of WHO polio-endemic countries (by mid-February), reducing that group
to a historical low of three.
·
One of the three types of wild poliovirus
– wild poliovirus type 2 (WPV2) has been eradicated globally. The last case of
WPV2 was in Aligarh, India, in October, 1999.
·
When the Pulse Polio Immunisation Programme
was launched in India in 1995 an estimated 150,000 polio cases were reported
across the country each year.
·
The two polio-endemic states of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar have not reported any case of polio since April 2010 and
September 2010, respectively.
·
The transmission of the most dangerous
WPV1, which caused 95 per cent of polio in India until 2006, dropped to record
low levels in 2010. Uttar Pradesh, the epicenter of most polio outbreaks in the
country, has not reported any WPV1 cases since November 2009.
·
This progress follows intensive
immunization campaigns focusing on areas at highest risk of transmitting polio
and the most vulnerable populations, such as newborns (>500,000 children are
born in UP and Bihar each month) and migrants; use of the more efficacious
monovalent oral polio vaccines and, since 2010, the bivalent oral polio vaccine
(bOPV) which protects against both P1 and P3 concurrently.
·
In India, the polio partnership is led by
the Government of India, with continued support from WHO’s National Polio
Surveillance Project (NPSP), Rotary International, the US Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) and UNICEF, as well as significant contributions
by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
THE POLIO PROGRAMME
During each NID, nearly 2.3 million vaccinators under the
direction of 155,000 supervisors visit 209 million houses to administer OPV to
around 172 million children under 5 years of age across the country. To
reach people on the move, mobile vaccination teams immunize children at railway
stations, inside running trains, at bus stands, market places, construction
sites, etc. Around 5 million children
are immunized by transit and mobile teams during every round in UP,
Bihar and Mumbai alone.
Between 50-70 million children are vaccinated with OPV during
SNIDs which cover the endemic states of UP and Bihar, re-infected states such
as West Bengal and Jharkhand, polio high-risk areas of Delhi and Mumbai (and
their surrounding areas). Migrant and mobile populations in Punjab, Haryana,
Chandigarh, Rajasthan and Gujarat are also covered in the SNIDs.
Progress in India follows:
·
The strong commitment of the Government of
India and the endemic and high-risk states, ensuring that the entire government
machinery is geared for the polio eradication programme down to the block and
village level.
·
Intense and focused measures with tailored
tools and strategies to reach and deliver the maximum possible protection to
children in the highest-risk areas and among the highest-risk populations.
·
The concerted and tireless efforts of the
millions of frontline workers – vaccinators and community mobilizers - braving
all odds and challenges to ensure that children <5 years are protected with
OPV in each immunization round.
·
An intense surveillance network for polio,
ensuring rapid detection of polioviruses for a timely response.
·
A huge network of nearly 8,500 community
mobilisers in polio-endemic and high-risk states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and West Bengal, which is continuously counseling families in the highest-risk
areas and tracking and reaching out to the most vulnerable migrant and mobile
populations to ensure their children are protected against polio in every polio
round, and for routine immunization. The community mobilisers are now also spreading
awareness about polio-associated risk factors: the need to protect children
with life-saving vaccines being offered free of cost under Routine
Immunization; hygiene and sanitation; hand-washing; exclusive breast feeding up
to six months; and diarrhea management with ORS and zinc.
·
Robust communication strategies, including
a new communication campaign targeting the need for repeated immunization up to
the age of 5 years; the fact polio has no cure but can be prevented, and
targeting the highest-risk migrant, mobile and nomadic populations with
messages that read: Wherever you stay,
wherever you go, ensure your child gets protection against polio.
CHALLENGES & PROGRAMME PRIORITIES
· The key challenge now
is to ensure any residual or imported poliovirus in the country is rapidly
detected and eliminated. This requires very high levels of vigilance and
emergency preparedness to respond to any importation of wild poliovirus. The
importation of wild poliovirus into China in 2011 highlights the risk that
India faces of polio returning to the country.
·
The Government of India and all states are
putting together Emergency Preparedness and Response Plans to ensure a rapid
and appropriate response to any case of polio in the country.
·
The challenge is to ensure all children
up to 5 years of age continue to take OPV at every available opportunity (polio
campaigns and routine immunization) both in and outside the polio-endemic
states until global eradication is achieved.
·
Ensuring populations on the move –
migrants, nomads and cross-border movements – both inside and outside
polio-endemic, high-risk and re-infected states and entering India from
neighboring Pakistan and Nepal, are protected with OPV in each round.
·
Tackling the risk of complacency among the
community and within the polio programme in view of zero cases.
Keeping polio eradication as a key health
priority in India until global eradication.Forest Situation of India
Forest
Situation of India
Booklet No. 9
Forestry: FS-1
Contents
Preface
I.
Forest in Ecology
II.
Multiple Roles of Forests
III.
A historical Background
IV.
The forest Acts and policies
V.
Land Use Patter in India
VI.
Forest In India
VII.
Reasons and Consequences of
Deforestation
VIII.
State wise Forest coverage
IX.
Conclusion
Preface
Forests have a significant role not only in ensuring the
environmental stability, but also achieving economical benefits. This booklet
is an attempt to present a comprehensive picture of the complex forest
situation in India. This booklet describes the role of forest in ecology, types
of forests. Forest policies and acts, consequences and reasons for
deforestation and present forest situation of different States in India. The
tables are formulated in such a way that one can update the date under each
item as fresh data becomes available.
K. T. Chandy,
Agricultural & Environmental Education
I. Forest in
Ecology
A growing tree is a living symbol of a progressive nation”
Jawahrlal Nehru.
Forest is not just a group of trees, but is a ecosystem in
itself, comprising all the living and non-living components. The chief living
components of a forest ecosystem are (1) plants dominated by threes, forming
the primary producers, (2) animals forming the consumer element, and (3)
decomposers or the microorganisms. Soil, water, air and sunlight form the
non-lignin components of a forest ecosystem. These components of a forest
ecosystem. These components interact with each other and evolve the ecological
energy cycle which consists of two other cyclic processes, namely, water cycle
and matter (organic and inorganic) cycle. These processes maintain the dynamic
equilibrium between the living components and nonliving components within an
ecosystem. Any imbalance or deviation in this process will lead to a total
collapse of the ecosystem. Drought and flood are the two most important
consequences of the imbalance in forest ecosystem caused by the indiscriminate
felling of trees.
The forest ecosystem fulfils extremely important
protective, regulatory and productive functions both for the environment and
for the well being and development of society. The importance of forest in the
ecosystem can never be overemphasized.
II. Multiple Roles
of Forests
Forests have numerous roles to play both natural and
man-made. Natural functions are protective and regulative services, while
man-imposed functions relate to production and socio-ecological services. The
various roles are enumerated as follows.
1.Forest
control erosion of soil which is the store house of all inorganic and organic
materials in nature. The trunk, dense foliage and intertwisting roots of trees
and bushes check the movement of air and water and preserve the precious top
soil. Forest is the most effective controller of landslides and other massive
movement of soil.
2.Forests
store water and release it slowly giving rise to springs and streams. Besides,
70-90% of a trees body weight is water. Hence the total volume of water in a
forest ecosystem is considerable. No doubt such a large quantity of water has
influence on the other components of ecosystem.
3.The
trees maintain the water cycle in the nature. Rain water is intercepted by the
leaves and later evaporated from the leaf surface. Most of the remaining water
is absorbed by the decaying litter on the ground or percolate into the soil
reducing the runoff to the minimum. The percolated water is absorbed by the roots and transmitted to
the serial portion of the tree from where transpiration takes place or it
reappears in the form of springs which ultimately join the sea from where it
comes back in the form of rain.
4.Forest
purify the air. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from air during the process of
photosynthesis and release oxygen. This way carbondioxide-oxygen balance is
maintained.
5.Forests
provides the most important forest products in the form of timber and fuel. In
India, 80% of population in the rural areas and 45% in the urban areas, use
firewood for cooking and beating.
6.Tree
generate organic matter to the soil by the shedding of their leaves and twigs
which decay and mixes with the soil.
7.It
also gives various minor forest products like fruits, seeds leaves, barks,
roots, gums and resins for purposes which range from food to medicine,
clothing, paints, dyes, etc.
8.Forestry
generates employment opportunities in rural areas and business opportunities to
urban people. National Commission on Agriculture estimated that about 5.5
million people can be employed in the forestry sector alone during the of 20
years.
9.Forests
harbour wildlife which are essential for maintaining the balance of nature .
10.The
trees form a protective barrier against the hot and cold winds for the
habitations and agricultural fields on the sheltered side.
11.Forests
provide esthetic and recreational facilities.
III. A historical
Background
The history of forests in India, as anywhere else in the
world, is linked with the history of civilization. The 400 year old Agnipurana
mountins that a man should protect trees to ensure material prosperity and
religious merit. 2500 years ago, Gautam Buddha preached that a man must plant
trees every five years. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata give
attractive descriptions of forests like Dandakarany, Nandavana and Khandavan.
The supreme God of Indus Valley was supposed to live in papal (Ficus) trees.
Pipal and babul were plants believed to have descended on earth from heaven.
The people in the ancient times was , the forest. They did not cut the trees
recklessly and the forests produced more than enough for every body.
The first indication of forestry administration is found in
300 BC during Chandra Gupta Maurya’s reign, when a superitendent of forest was
appointed to protect forests and wild life.
The Moughuls made no attempts on forest conservation. The
forest shrank steadily during the reign. But even then the forest produced much
more than the people required. Forest were protected to certain extent,
Moughuls because of their fondness for hunting. However, Akbar did evince keen
interest in the planting of trees along canals and highways.
The forest scene however changes rapidly after the advent
of the British. For the British administrators, Indian forests were an
inexhaustible source of durable and ornamental timber and other forest
products. Teak forests along the coast of Malabar were over exploited to meet
the requirements of the British navy. The sandal wood trees of South India were
exploited for the European markets. The two world wars were also the periods of
great devastations of Indian forests. Forest were cut recklessly to meet the
increased demand. As a result , rich productive forest vanished, causing an
irreparable damage to the ecosystem and to the Indian people, specially, the
tribals. Unfortunately, the forest destruction did not stop after the
Britishers left and it is estimated that India is losing about 1.5 million
hectres of forest manually.
IV. The Forests
Acts and Policies
The first attempt on forest legislation was made with the
passing of the Indian Forest Act in 1865. the Act mainly aimed at preventing
damage to forests.
The Act was revised in 1978 and improved on the
inadequacies of the earlier Act and provided for the constitution of reserved
and protected forests. Ina reserve forest, everything was prohibited which was
not specifically permitted, and in a protected forest everything was permitted
which was not specifically prohibited.
The first forest policy in the country was formulated in
1894. The two main clauses in the policy were the following.
1.The
claims of cultivation are stronger than the claims of forest preservation.
2.The
public (material) benefit was the sole object of forest administration.
The
National Forest Policy (1952), however, recognized the protective functions of
forest and had the following salient features.
1.It
states that though the claims of agriculture appear stronger than that of
forestry, the role of forests in the national economy, both protective and
productive entitles forests to lay claim to an adequate share of land.
2.Country
as a whole should aid at maintaining one third of its total land area under
forests with a proportion of 20% in the plains and 60% of land area in the
hills .
3.The
policy advocated scrupulous regard for sustained yield in the management of all
classes of forests.
4.The
policy stated that continuous and free grazing should not be allowed forests.
Grazing by goats should be totally
excluded and grazing by sheep be
restricted.
In 1980, a Forest (Conservation) Act was formulated which
prohibited de-reservation of forests and diversion of forest land to non-forest
use without prior permission of the central government.
The new National Forest Policy (1988) primarily aims at
ensuring environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance. The
direct economic benefits are subordinate to them. Secondly the symbiotic
relationship between the tribals and forests is acknowledged unlike the
previous policies which were totally industry oriented. Though shifting
cultivation is not totally banned, efforts should be made to control it by
propagating improved agricultural practices. The policy also emphasizes fuel
wood and fodder development through social forestry and farm forestry on all
degraded and denuded lands in the country be it forest or non forest land.
V. Land Use Pattern
in India
A brief review of the land use pattern in India helps one
to get a better understanding of the forest situation in India.
The data on current land used pattern in India are
presented in Table 1 which reveal the extent of various types of wasteland
available at present. The wastelands are potential areas for afforestation.
Table 1. Waste land in
India
|
Sl.
Nos
|
Items
|
1950
-51
|
1960
-61
|
1970
-71
|
1980
-81
|
1984
-85
|
|
1
|
Area
under
Forests
|
40.482
(14.2)
|
54.052
(18.1)
|
63.917
(22.2)
|
67.420
(22.2)
|
67.157
(22.1)
|
|
2
|
Area
not ava-lable for culti-ation
|
47.517
(16.7)
|
50.751
(17.6)
|
39.645
(13.0)
|
39.645
(13.0)
|
40.476
(13.3)
|
|
3
|
Area
under
Non
agricultu-ral use
|
9.357
(3.3)
|
14.840
(5.0)
|
19.598
(6.4)
|
19.598
(6.4)
|
20.408
(6.7)
|
|
4
|
Barren
and un
Cultivable
Land
|
38.160
(13.4)
|
35.911
(12.0)
|
20.047
(6.6)
|
20.047
(6.6)
|
20.068
(6.6)
|
|
5
|
Other
unculti-
vted
land
|
40.446
(17.4)
|
37.637
(12.6)
|
32.195
(10.6)
|
32.195
(10.6)
|
31.057
(10.2)
|
|
6
|
Pastures
and
Grazing
land
|
6.675
(2.3)
|
13.966
(4.7)
|
12.006
(3.9)
|
12.006
(3.9)
|
11.934
(3.9)
|
|
7
|
Land
under miscellaneous tree crops
|
19.828
(7.0)
|
4.459
(1.4)
|
3.490
(1.2)
|
3.490
(1.2)
|
3.385
(1.1)
|
|
8
|
Cultural
waste
Land
|
22.943
(8.1)
|
19.212
(5.8)
|
16.699
(5.5)
|
16.699
(5.5)
|
15.738
(5.2)
|
|
9
|
Fallow
land
|
28.124
(9.9)
|
22.819
(7.7)
|
24.611
(8.1)
|
24.611
(8.1)
|
24.915
(8.2)
|
|
10
|
Fallow
other
Than
current fallows
|
17.445
(6.1)
|
11.180
(38)
|
9.796
(3.2)
|
9.796
(3.2)
|
9.552
(3.1)
|
|
11
|
Current
fallows
|
10.676
(3.6)
|
11.639
(3.8)
|
11.116
(3.6)
|
14.815
(4.9)
|
15.363
(5.1)
|
|
12
|
Net
sown area
|
118.746
(41.8)
|
133.199
(44.6)
|
140.298
(46.3)
|
140.715
(46.1)
|
140.602
(46.2)
|
|
13
|
Total
cropped area
|
131.893
(46.4)
|
152.722
(51.2)
|
171.296
(56.3)
|
173.099
(56.9)
|
175.955
(57.8)
|
|
14
|
Area
sown
more than
once
|
13.147
(4.6)
|
19.573
(6.6)
|
25.524
(8.4)
|
32.801
(10.8)
|
35.240
(11.6)
|
|
15
|
Cropping
intensity
|
111.1
|
114.7
|
118.2
|
123.4
|
125.0
|
|
16
|
Total
reporting
Area
|
284.315
(100.0)
|
298.458
(100.0)
|
303.758
(100.0)
|
304.144
(100.0)
|
304.320
(100.0)
|
|
17
|
Area
for which no return exists
|
44.411
(13.5)
|
30.268
(9.2)
|
24.968
(7.6)
|
24.557
(7.47)
|
24.406
(7.42)
|
N.B. 1. Total geographical area of India
328.716 m ha
2.Percentage over total geographical
area
Source
: Indian Agriculture in brief, government of India, 22nd Edition
1988.
The
salient features of land use pattern in India are as follows.
1.The area under forest increased from 14.2% in 150-51 to
18.1% in 1960-61, to 21% in 1970-71 and to 22.1% in 1980-81, but slightly
decreased to 22.1% by 1994-85. the forest area remains almost the same since
1978-79 (22 per cent). Studies by National Remote sensing Agency (NRSA),
Hyderabad establishes decreasing trend in the forest cover between 72-75 and
80-81.
2.The area under non-agricultural use increased from 3.3% in
1950-51 to 6.7% in 1984-85. It remains around 6.5% since 1978-79.
3.The net sown area increased from 41.8% in 1950-51 to 46.3%
in 1970-71 and since then it remains almost stable.
4.The barren and unculturable land decreased from 13.4% to
1950-51 to 6.65 and remains around 6.5% since 1978.
5.The
pastures and grazing lands increased from 2.3% in 1950-51 to 4.7% in 1960-61,
but decreased to 3.9 in 1980-81 and since then remain almost the same.
6.The
land under miscellaneous tree crops decreased from 7.0 in 1950-51 to 1.1 in
1984-85, but has been remaining between 1.1 and 1.2 from 1978-79 onwards.
7.The
cultural waste land decreased from 8.1% in 1950-51 to 5.2% in 1984-84 and has
been fluctuating between 5.1 and 5.8% since 1970-71.
8.The
fallow lands other current fallows decreased from 6.1% in 1950-51 to 3.1% in
1984-85, and remain around 3.0%.
9.Current
fallows increased from 3.8% to 5.1% between 1950-51 and 1984-85, but remain
between 4.1 and 5.1% since 1975-76.
10.The
area for which no reporting exists more or less stable (7.4-7.6 per cent) since
1971.
11.The
total reporting area (area for which the statistics are available) has been
around 304 million hectares since 1975 and the percentages given above are
calculated based on this area.
On the basis of available data, India needs to have 101.33
million hectares (33.3% of reported area) under forest. Whereas, it has only
about 67 million hectares (22%) at present leaving a deficit of 34.23 million
hectares. This deficit can be made up to 83.75% by afforesting the land under miscellaneous
tree crops and groves (3.385 m ha), cultivable waste land (15.738 m ha) and
fallow land other than current fallows
(9.552 m ha), which together account for 28.67 million hectares (1984-85). The
rest can be covered by afforesting 5.56 million hectares of barren land from
the 20 million hectares of barren and uncultivable land.
The area under forest increased from 12.31% in 1950-51 to
20.51% in 1978-79 though the forest cover according to Remote Sensing
Institute, Hyderabad is as low as 10-11 %. Here one has to distinguish between
the area demarcated under forest and the actual tree cover. The actual tree
covered forest is only 30.4 to 33.4 million hectares instead 67 million
hectares according to the statistics.
Waste lands
Waste land are degraded, under-utilized or unutilized
lands, which can be put to good use. They may be forest or non-forest areas.
The non-forest areas may be public or private. However, they generally fall
under the following categories.
1.Degraded
forest.
2.village
common land and grazing grounds.
3.Lands
on roadside, canal sides, railways line sides
4.marginal
agricultural lands.
5.Saline-alkaline
lands, waterlogged lands raving lands.
6.
Abandoned mining areas.
7.Sand
dunes, alpine pastures and cold desert.
These categories of wasteland are degraded mainly due to
salinity, alkalinity, water and wind erosion. Table-2 provides state wise
details of the degradation by these agents.
Table 2: Estimated state
wise non-forest wasteland in India (1978)
(Million
hectares)
|
Sl.Nos
|
States
& U. Ts
|
Saline
&
Alkaline
lands
|
Wind
Eroded
lands
|
Water
Eroded
lands
|
Total
|
|
1
|
Andhra
Pradesh
|
0.240
|
0.000
|
7.442
|
7.682
|
|
2
|
Aurnachal
Pradesh
|
0.000
|
N.A
|
N.A
|
N.A
|
|
3
|
Assam
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.935
|
0.935
|
|
4
|
Bihar
|
0.004
|
0.000
|
3.892
|
3.896
|
|
5
|
Gujarat
|
1.214
|
0.704
|
5.235
|
7.153
|
|
6
|
Haryana
|
0.526
|
1.599
|
0.276
|
2.401
|
|
7
|
Himachal
Pradesh
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
1.424
|
1.424
|
|
8
|
Jammu
& Kashmir
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.531
|
0.531
|
|
9
|
Karnataka
|
0.404
|
0.000
|
6.718
|
7.122
|
|
10
|
Kerala
|
0.016
|
0.000
|
1.037
|
1.053
|
|
11
|
Madhya
Pradesh
|
0.242
|
0.000
|
12.705
|
12.947
|
|
12
|
Maharastra
|
0.534
|
0.000
|
11.026
|
11.560
|
|
13
|
Manipur
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.014
|
0.014
|
|
14
|
Meghalaya
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.815
|
0.815
|
|
15
|
Nagaland
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.508
|
0.508
|
|
16
|
Orissa
|
0.404
|
0.000
|
2.753
|
3.157
|
|
17
|
Punjab
|
0.688
|
0.000
|
0.463
|
1.151
|
|
18
|
Rajasthan
|
0.728
|
10.623
|
6.659
|
18.010
|
|
19
|
Sikkim
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.131
|
0.131
|
|
20
|
Tamil
Nadu
|
0.004
|
0.000
|
3.388
|
3.392
|
|
21
|
Tripura
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.108
|
0.108
|
|
22
|
Uttar
Pradesh
|
1.295
|
0.000
|
5.340
|
6.635
|
|
23
|
West
Bengal
|
0.850
|
0.000
|
1.327
|
2.177
|
|
24
|
Union
territories
|
0.016
|
0.000
|
0.873
|
0.889
|
|
25
|
Total
|
7.165
|
12.926
|
73.600
|
93.691
|
Souce: Bhumla & Khare ( undated). Estimates of Wastelands in
India. New Delhi: Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development (S.P.W.D.):
quoted by Irshad Khan (1987) in wasteland Afforestation.
The saline and alkaline soils are miximum in U.P, followed
by Gujarat. As Gujarat is near the sea shore the coastal lands are affected
with salinity or alkalinity. But in U.P., alkalinity is due to excessive canal
irrigation. Wind erosion is maximum in Rajashan, Haryana and Gujarat. Rajasthan
leads the table because of its desert, while in Haryana erosion is high as the State is adjacent to Rajasthan desert.
Water erosion is maximum is Madhya Pradesh followed by Maharastra and
Karnataka.
Thus by the end of seventies, about 86.6 million hectares
were eroded by water and wind. The erosion increased up to 144.43 million
hectares in the year 1984-85. The area under saline-alkali soils increased from
7.2 million during the end of seventies to 9.1 million hectares in 1984-85.
Land degradation in the forest land according to the data
provided is even greater than non=forest
area. Of the total reporting area of 304.32 million hectares, 93.69 million
hectares (30.78%) of non-forest land and 32.75 out of 67 million hectares
(48.88%) of forest land is degraded. This becomes clear from the following
Table No.3.
Table 3: Estimates of
wasteland in India
(Non-forest area + forest
degraded area) (million heactares)
|
Sl.
Nos
|
States/U.Ts
|
Non-forest
Degraded
Land
area
|
Forest
degraded
Land
area
|
Total
Degraded
Land
area
|
|
1
|
Andhra
Pradesh
|
7.682
|
3.734
|
11.416
|
|
2
|
Aurnachal
Pradesh
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
0.000
|
|
3
|
Assam
|
0.935
|
0.795
|
1.730
|
|
4
|
Bihar
|
3.896
|
1.562
|
5.458
|
|
5
|
Gujarat
|
7.153
|
0.683
|
7.836
|
|
6
|
Haryana
|
2.401
|
0.074
|
2.475
|
|
7
|
Himachal
Pradesh
|
1.424
|
0.534
|
1.958
|
|
8
|
Jammu
& Kashmir
|
0.531
|
1.034
|
1.565
|
|
9
|
Karnataka
|
7.122
|
2.043
|
9.165
|
|
10
|
Kerala
|
1.053
|
0.226
|
1.279
|
|
11
|
Madhya
Pradesh
|
12.947
|
7.195
|
20.142
|
|
12
|
Maharastra
|
11.560
|
2.841
|
14.401
|
|
13
|
Manipur
|
0.014
|
1.424
|
1.438
|
|
14
|
Meghalaya
|
0.815
|
1.103
|
1.918
|
|
15
|
Nagaland
|
0.508
|
0.878
|
1.386
|
|
16
|
Orissa
|
3.157
|
3.227
|
6.384
|
|
17
|
Punjab
|
1.151
|
0.079
|
1.230
|
|
18
|
Rajasthan
|
18.010
|
1.933
|
19.943
|
|
19
|
Sikkim
|
0.131
|
0.150
|
0.281
|
|
20
|
Tamil
Nadu
|
3.392
|
1.009
|
4.401
|
|
21
|
Tripura
|
0.108
|
0.865
|
0.973
|
|
22
|
Uttar
Pradesh
|
6.635
|
1.426
|
8,061
|
|
23
|
West
Bengal
|
2.177
|
0.359
|
2.536
|
|
24
|
Union
territories
|
0.889
|
2.715
|
3.604
|
|
|
Total
|
93.961
|
35.889
|
129.580
|
Source:
Bhumla & khare ( undated).
Estimates of Wastelands in India. New Delhi: Society for Promotion of Wasteland
Development (S.P.W.D.): quoted by Irshad Khan (1987) in wasteland Afforestation.
From the table it is clear that among the states with
extensive degraded land, Madhya Pradesh ranks first with approximately 20 m ha
followed by Rajasthan with 17 m ha. According to the National Wasteland
Development board, 175 million hectares are wastelands which include 40 to 60
million hectares of agricultural land, 40 m h of degraded forest.
Unfortunately, the rate of degradation is on the increase and at present over
half of India’s land is seriously degraded. It has been estimated that annually
about 3.5 m ha turn into wasteland in India, 1.5 million ha due to
deforestation and the rest because of various other reasons.
VI. Forest in India
Assuming 75.18 m ha as forest area out of the total
geographical area (328.726 m h), the forest area in our country can be
considered from various points of view such as legal status actual forest
cover, distribution by types of distribution by function.
Legally, forests in India are classified as (1) reserved
forest (40.18 m ha), (2) protected forest (21.73m ha), (3) unclassed forest
(13.27 m ha).
Going by actual forest cover (64.2 m ha) it is classifed as
(1) dense forest (36.14m ha ), (2) open forest (27.66 m ha ) and (3) mangroves
(0.4 m ha).
The actual forest cover is further functionally classified
into (1) protection forest (10 m ha), (2) production forest (16 m ha ), (3)
social forest (25 m ha), (4) national parks and wild life sanctuary (13 m ha).
However, the most common and useful classification of
forest is based on the distribution by types. Accordingly forests are
classified into (1) tropical (52.00 m ha ), (2) subtropical (5.77 m ha), (3)
temperate (4.57) and alpine (1.86 m ha). These are further classified, the
details of which are given here.
A. Types of forest: The existence and survival of forest species depends on
the climatic factors. India being a country with vast variations in climate and
physical features, the forest in India are grouped into (1) tropical ever green
(wet ever green and semi ever green), (2) tropical moist decidous, (3) tropical
dry deciduous, (4) tropical thorn forest (5) tropical dry every green, (6)
littoral and swamp, (7) subtropical broad leaved hills, (8) sub-tropical pine,
(9) subtropical dry every green (10) mountain wet temperate, (11) Himalyan
temperate (12) alpine. This classification is based on data provided by Central
Forestry Commission according to which India has a forest area of 75 million
hectares.
1. Tropical
evergreen:
Area: Wet evergreen –4.5 m ha 9 6.08%), semi-evergreen forests
are lofty, sense forests with a large number of species and numerous epiphytes:
climbers heavy in semi-evergreen, through few in wet evergreen forests. No
individual species forms more than 1% of the upper canopy.
Region: Wet and Semi-evergreen forest are found in the Andamans,
the western side of the western ghats and in a strip running south-est from
upper Assam through Cachar. Semi-evergreen forests occur along the west coast,
in Assam, Orissa and the lower slopes of the Himalaya.
Some important
species: Mesua, white cedar, hopea
and bamboo occur in both semi and wet evergreen forest. Specific to wet
evergreen are jamum, canes. Semi-evergreen: kadam, irul, laurel, rosewood,
haldu, India chestnut, champa and mango.
2. Tropica moist
deciduous:
Area: 23.3 m ha (31.48%)
Characteristics: Multi-layered forest with irregular top story of
predominantly deciduous species, a definite second story of mixed species and a
shrubby undergrowth fairly complete; climbers heavy.
Region: Andamans, moister parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Maharastra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Bengal, Bihar, Assam and other state in the north east.
Some important
species: Padauk, badam, kokko,
teak, laurel, haldu, rosewood, bijasal, irul, amla, common bamboo, sal, pula,
jamun, mahul, canes.
3. Tropical dry
deciduous:
Area: 29.2 m ha (39.49%)
Characteristics: Multi-layered forest, almost entirely deciduous, shrubs
and bamboo present, but not luxuriant; climbers few, though some are large and
woody.
Region: Irregular wide strip running north south from the foot of
the Himalya to Cape Commorin except in Rajsthan, Western ghats and West Bengal.
Hence it covers maximum area.
Some Important
species: Teak, axlewood, bijasal,
resewood, amaltas, palas, haldu, common bamboo, red sanders, laurel, satin
wood, and sal.
4. Tropical thorn:
Area: 5.2m ha (7.62%)
Characteristics: Open, low pronouncedly xerophytic forest; thorny,
leguminous species predominate; trees have short boles and low branches; ill
defined lower story of small tree and shrubs.
Region: A large strip in south Punjab, Rajasthan, upper Gangatic
plain, the Decan plateau and the lower peninsular India.
Some Important
species: khair, reunjha, axlewood,
neem, sandalwood, nirmali, dhaman, acacia Senegal, khejra, kanju, palas.
5:Tropical dry
evergreen:
Area: 0.7 m ha (0.95%)
Characteristics: Single complete canopy of evergreen trees mostly coriaceous
leaved, with short holes.
Region: Restricted to small area along the konkan coast.
Some important
species: Khirni, jamum, kokko,
ritha, tamarind, neem, machkund, toddy palm, and canes.
6.Littoral and
swamp:
Area: 0.3 m ha (0.4%)
Characteristics: Luxuriant forests, evergreen species predominating.
Region: Khasi, the Nigiris, Mahabeleshwar and the lower slopes of
the Himalaya in West Bengal and Assam.
Some important
species: Jamun, machilus,
melissma, elaeocarpus, celtis.
7. sub-tropical
broad-leaved hill
Area: 0.3 m ha ( 0.4%)
Characteristics: Luxuriant forests, evergreen species predominating.
Region: Khasi, the Nilgiris, Mahabeleswar and the lower slopes of
the Himalaya to west Bengal and Assam.
Some important
species: Jamun, machilus, melisma,
elaeocarpus, celtis.
8.Sub-tropiucal
pine:
Area: 3.7 m ha ( 5.0%).
Characteristics: Almost entirely pure chirpine, no underwood, few shrubs.
Region: The length of the north-west Himalaya between 1,000-1,800
metres except in Kashmir.
Some important
species: chir, jamun, oak,
rhododendron.
9.Sub-tropical dry
evergreen:
Area: 0.2 m ha (0.27%)
Characteristics: Low, scrub forest, small stunted evergreen trees appear,
shrubs including thorny species prevalent; herbs and grasses appear during
monsoon.
Region: The Bhabar, the Shiwalik range and the western himalaya
about 1000 metres.
Some important
species: Olive, acacia modesta,
pistacia,
10.Montane wet
temperate:
Area: 1.6 m ha (2.16%)
Characteristics: A closed evergreen forest, trees mostly are with short
trunks and branched attaining wide girth, crowned by dense and rounded leaves,
red when young, branches clothed with mosses.
Region: Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Keral from 150 metres
upwards and eastern Himalaya on the higher of West Bengal.
11. Himalayan
temperate:
Area: Most temperate 2.7 m h (3.64%). Dry temperate 0.2 m ha (
0.27%).
Characteristics: Predominantly coniferous forests; mosses and ferns grow
freely on trees in the moist temperate
forest, while there are hardly any epiphytes and climbers in the dry temperate
forests.
Region: The moist temperate forests occupy the length of the
Himalaya between the pine and sub alpine forests in Kashmir, H.P., Punjab,
U.P., West Bengal and Sikkim, between 1500 and 3,300 metres. Dry temperate
forests; along inner range of the Himalya in Ladakh, Lahaul Chamba, Bashhr,
Garhwal and Sikkim.
Some important
species: Oak, deodar, celtis and
mapla are common to both Himalayan moist and dry temperate forests. Specific to
Himalayas moist temperate forests are: fir, spruce, dry, temperate forests are:
chilgoza, ash, parrotia and olive.
12. Alpine
(sub-alpine, moist alpine scrub and dry alpine scrub)
Area: 0.003 m ha total for all (0.04%)
Characteristics: Sub-alpine: Dense growth of small, broad leaved trees,
often crooked large shrubs and conifers also. Moist alpine scrub: dense growth
of low evergreen, alpine shrubs, flowering herbs, mosses and ferns. Dry alpine
scrub; Xerrophytic, dwarf shrubs.
Region: All three trypes are
confined to the higher elevations of the Himalayas, the subalpine forests
adjoining the alpine scrub which occur at height about 3000 metres.
Some important
species: Rhododendron and birch
are common to the sub-alpine forest and moist alpine scub; honesuckle to both
types of alpine scrub, fir, kail, spruce plum and yew are specifc to
sub-alpine, berberies to moist alpine scrub; and juniper, artemsea and
potentialla to dry alpine scrub.
B. Forest cover
In terms of land ecology, India’s forest cover is
inadequate. Out of the reporting area (304.32 m ha) 67.42 m ha (22%) in the
recorded area of forests in our country. However, according to the Department
of Forest and Wildlife (GOI 1985), forest s cover about 22.8% of the total
geographical area (328.726 m ha ) admeasuring 75.0 m ha. Out of these ,
coniferous and broad leaved forests constitute 6.37% and 93.63% covering about
4.76 and 69.96 million ha respectively. The minimum area of forests to maintain
a good ecological balance has been regarded to be 33% (101.44 out of 304.32 m
ha of 109.57 out of 328.728 m ha).
According to this standard, India lags behind. Our per capita forest area comes
to a meager 0.11 ha against the world average of 1.08 ha as per 1981 census.
The following table provides state wise details on the extent of forest cover
and the per capita availability of forest (1981). The data presented (Table-4)
area self explanatory. The per capita availability of forest is calculated on
the basis of the data provided by the Central Forestry Commission which holds
75 m ha as the forest area in India.
Table 4: State wise and
per capita forest area (1981)
|
Sl
Nos.
|
State/UTs
|
Area
of state (m ha)
|
Area
of
Forest
(m
ha)
|
Area
of
Forest
(%)
|
Popu
lation
|
Per
capita
forest
Area
(ha)
|
|
1
|
Andhra
Pradesh
|
27.63
|
6.39
|
23.2
|
53.40
|
0.12
|
|
2
|
Aurnachal
Pradesh
|
8.35
|
5.15
|
61.7
|
0.62
|
8.21
|
|
3
|
Assam
|
783
|
3.07
|
39.1
|
19.90
|
0.15
|
|
4
|
Bihar
|
17.33
|
2.92
|
16.9
|
69.82
|
0.04
|
|
5
|
Goa
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
--
|
|
6
|
Gujarat
|
19.59
|
1.96
|
10.0
|
34.08
|
0.05
|
|
7
|
Haryana
|
4.42
|
0.16
|
3.50
|
12.58
|
0.01
|
|
8
|
Himachal
Pradesh
|
5.56
|
2.11
|
37.94
|
4.23
|
0.50
|
|
9
|
Jammu
& Kashmir
|
22.22
|
2.10
|
9.45
|
5.98
|
0.35
|
|
10
|
Karnataka
|
19.17
|
3.83
|
19.97
|
37.13
|
0.10
|
|
11
|
Kerala
|
3.88
|
1.12
|
28.9
|
25.40
|
0.04
|
|
12
|
Madhya
Pradesh
|
44.34
|
15.54
|
34.9
|
52.13
|
0.29
|
|
13
|
Maharastra
|
30.77
|
6.39
|
20.8
|
62.69
|
0.10
|
|
14
|
Manipur
|
2.23
|
1.51
|
67.71
|
1.43
|
1.07
|
|
15
|
Meghalaya
|
2.25
|
0.94
|
41.7
|
1.32
|
0.72
|
|
16
|
Mizoram
|
2.10
|
0.17
|
8.09
|
0.49
|
0.34
|
|
17
|
Nagaland
|
1.65
|
0.28
|
16.96
|
0.77
|
0.36
|
|
18
|
Orissa
|
15.57
|
6.02
|
38.8
|
26.37
|
0.22
|
|
19
|
Punjab
|
5.04
|
0.26
|
5.15
|
16.67
|
0.12
|
|
20
|
Rajasthan
|
34.22
|
3.44
|
10.0
|
34.26
|
0.10
|
|
22
|
Sikkim
|
0.73
|
0.28
|
38.6
|
0.31
|
0.89
|
|
23
|
Tamil
Nadu
|
13.00
|
2.17
|
16.6
|
48.40
|
0.04
|
|
24
|
Tripura
|
1.04
|
0.59
|
56.5
|
2.06
|
0.29
|
|
25
|
Uttar
Pradesh
|
29.44
|
5.11
|
17.4
|
110.85
|
0.04
|
|
26
|
West
Bengal
|
8.78
|
1.18
|
13.43
|
54.58
|
0.02
|
|
Union Territories
|
||||||
|
1
|
Goa,
Daman & Diu
|
0.381
|
0.1053
|
27.6
|
1.082
|
0.10
|
|
2
|
A
& N Islands
|
0.829
|
0.7144
|
86.2
|
0.188
|
3.8
|
|
3
|
Chandigarh
|
0.011
|
--
|
--
|
0.45
|
--
|
|
4
|
Dadra
& Nagarhaveli
|
0.049
|
0.019
|
40.6
|
0.104
|
0.10
|
|
5
|
Delhi
|
0.149
|
--
|
--
|
6.196
|
--
|
|
6
|
Lakshadweep
|
0.003
|
--
|
--
|
0.040
|
--
|
|
7
|
Pondichery
|
0.048
|
--
|
--
|
0.604
|
--
|
|
8
|
All India
|
328.778
|
750.624
|
22.8
|
683.810
|
0.11
|
Source: compiled from different sources chiefly (1) Census of
India 1981 (2) Central Forestry commission quoted in Social Forestry in India,
Birla Institute of Scientific Research (BISR), New Delhi.
India’s forest cover percentage (22.8) does not compare
well against the world’s average figure of 29.5%. It is very low compared to
many countries of the world, as is evident from Table 5.
Table 5 Forest area of
some countries (1987)
|
Sl.
No.
|
Country
|
Total
Population
In
million
|
Total
Geogra-
phical
area
m
ha
|
Forest
Area
in
M
ha
|
Forest
area
Per-centage
|
Per
capita
Forest
area
|
|
1
|
Australia
|
15,751
|
762
|
107
|
14.04
|
6.8
|
|
2
|
Canada
|
25,302
|
922
|
325
|
35.4
|
12.4
|
|
3
|
China
|
10,51,551
|
956
|
142
|
14.8
|
0.12
|
|
4
|
Germany
(East)
|
16,658
|
11
|
3
|
27.3
|
0.18
|
|
5
|
Germany
(West)
|
61,214
|
25
|
7
|
28.0
|
0.11
|
|
6
|
India
|
7,62,000
|
329
|
75
|
22.8
|
0.99
|
|
7
|
Italy
|
56,724
|
29
|
6
|
20.6
|
0.10
|
|
8
|
Japan
|
1,21,000
|
37
|
25
|
67.6
|
2.0
|
|
9
|
Nepal
|
16,107
|
14
|
4
|
28.6
|
0.24
|
|
10
|
Sweden
|
8,284
|
45
|
26
|
57.8
|
3.1
|
|
11
|
Switzerland
|
6,505
|
4
|
1
|
25.0
|
0.15
|
|
12
|
U.K.
|
5562
|
24
|
2
|
8.3
|
0.36
|
|
13
|
USA
|
2,26,547
|
936
|
290
|
31.0
|
1.3
|
|
14
|
USSR
|
2,75,761
|
2240
|
920
|
41.07
|
3.3
|
|
15
|
World
Average
|
------
|
13390
|
4077
|
30.4
|
2.16
|
Source:
FAO production Year Book and Manorama Year Book 1987
The per capita availability of forest area in India in 1081
was 0.11 ha, but, from the above data it is clear that it gradually reduced to
0.09 ha by 1987. Assuming 2.5% increase in the population since 1981, in 1991.
Indian population is projected to be 857.5 million. Hence the per capita
availability of forest may further reduce to 0.08 ha. However, it the same is
estimated on the reporting forest area (67 m ha) per capita availability forest
will be reduced to 0.07 ha.
It is interesting to note in this context that India has
1.8% of its forest.
A study of the forest cover of India through satellite
imagery for the period 1972-75 and 1980-82 was made by the national Remote
Sensing Agency (NRSA) of the Department of Space in Hyderabad. Of the total
geographical area of the country (328.72 m ha) forest cover was just 16.88% in
1972-75 and 14.10% in 1980-82. The total forest areas has been reduced from
55.518 m.ha in 1972-75 to 45.347 m. ha in 1980-82 i.e. in a seven year span the
forest area was reduced by 16.5%. (this is contradicting the data given by
the government, Table 1). During this
period over 9 million ha of preserved forests have been completed deforested.
Another 1.3 million ha have been degraded, bring the total affected area to
10.4 million hectares.
VII. Reasons and
Consequences of Deforestation
It is estimated that 1.3 – 1.5 million hectares of forest
land are denuded annually.
A.
Reason
1. Population explosions
The foremost reason
for deforestation is the drastic growth in population. India has a per capita
forest land of only 0.09 ha compared to 12.4 ha for Canada and 6.8 ha for
Australia (1987). T he human demands on forests are complex and diverse. They
are related not only to matter and energy but also to space and diversity.
These demands are for firewood, timber, food, medicines, fodder, resins, etc.
In terms of service, the forests are used for soil and water conservation,
ecological balance, amelioration of climate, etc.
One out of five
persons depends on forest as a source of
food. In Andhra Pradesh, 5*% of mahua flowers and seeds and 17% of tamarind
fruits collected by tribals are consumed by them. In Bastar district, about 75%
of the local communities supplement their food with tubers, flowers and fruits
from the forest all round the year. In Nicobar and Andaman Islands, several
tribes depend totally on the forests and sea.
2. Fuel wood crisis
Wood is the
preferred domestic fuel for the tribals and the rural poor, obviously because
it costs nothing except the physical labour (mainly of woman) to procure it,
and does not require complex or expensive equipment to use it. In India wood
fuels are estimated to account for 68.5% of total energy consumption. Table 6
indicates the pattern of energy consumption in the rural India.
Table
6 Per capita energy consumption in rural sector.
|
Sl No
|
Form of Energy
|
Per capita % share of energy form
|
|
1
|
Electricity
|
0.6
|
|
2
|
Oil products
|
16.9
|
|
3
|
Coal products
|
2.3
|
|
4
|
Firewood
|
68.5
|
|
5
|
Animal dung
|
8.3
|
|
6
|
Others
|
3.4
|
Source: Indian
Forest: Myths 7 Reality JB Lal P-90
The total firewood
consumption in 1987 is estimated at 235 million cubic metres (157 million
tones). The combined availability of fuelwood from forest and non-forest lands
is 58 million tones. This shows that 99 million tones of fuel wool was pilfered
from the forest, thus adding to the continuous depletion of forests. On the one
hand the pilferage is depleting the forest and on the other hand the demand of
fuel wood is increasing because of rising population leading to the destruction
of much more forests. Recent projects suggest their demands for firewood and
fodder will triple over the next decade or so, given the growing rate of
consumption levels.
3. Extensive
cultivation
Around
46% of the total reporting area in the country is under agriculture which is
very high as compared to other countries. Even so, it is not sufficient to meet
the requirements of people. During the period 1951 to 1980, 4.35 million
hectares of forest lands were subjected to shifting cultivation by 622 thousand
families, and 2.623 million hectares of forest land, have been encroached upon
for permanent cultivation. At any given time, at least 9.79% of the total forest
area is under shifting cultivation.
It should be
realized that India, with an agriculture based economy, can thrive only if it
has a proportionate area under permanent vegetation. Forests affect soil
climate and availability of water, and thus sustain agriculture. But in India,
the forest are far less and inadequate in proportion to the land under
cultivation.
4. Grazing
India
has less than 0.5% of pastures in the world; but its livestock population
constitutes more than 33% of the worlds livestock. It also holds the
distinction of having the largest number of livestock compared to any country
in the world. Even these pastures were not put under any scientific management.
As a result of continuous grazing the pasture lands are so degraded that their
productivity is negligible. The paucity of pastures have forced people to graze their animals in
the forests. Around 90 million animals graze in the forests which cannot
support even half of this number.
The
current combined availability of green fodder from permanent pastures,
agricultural lands and forests is estimated at 434 million tones. The minimum
requirement of green fodder is 882 million tones. The big gap is made good by
grazing in the forest lands. This browsing leads not only to degradation of soil,
but also hampers the natural regeneration of forests.
5. Demand for
timber
The
demand for timber other than firewood works out to be over 27 million cubic
metre (m.cu m: according to the forest survey of India) for various purposes,
viz., pulp and paper, agricultural implements, housing, etc. But the
silviclturally permissible limit of cuts is 12 million m cu m. Therefore, the
other 15 m cu m of timber is obtained through unauthorized felling.
6. Diversion of
forest area to other uses
Another
major cause of deforestation is the diversion of the forest land to other
non-forest uses. As much as 4.328 m ha of forest lands were diverted to non
forest use between the period 1951-1980.
Table
7 Forest land diverted to non-forest use from 1951-1980.
|
Sl.
No
|
Purpose
|
Area diverted
(in m ha )
|
|
1
|
Agriculture
|
2.623
|
|
2
|
River vally
projects
|
0.502
|
|
3
|
Industries and
townships
|
0.134
|
|
4
|
Transmission
lines and roads
|
0.061
|
|
5
|
Others
|
1.008
|
|
|
Total
|
4.328
|
Source: India’s
Forest by J.B.Lal; 1989
The
forest land diversion idd not stop after 1980 inspite of the forest
(Conservation) Act 1980. The total forest land diverted from 1980 to February
1987 is about 46,852 hectare (0.04 m ha)
B. Consequence
The
lands without vegetation are subjected to many hazards like soil and water
erosion. The water storage capacity is reduced by 1.2 % annually because of
upland forest destruction, and poor watershed managment. The Ganga river alone
carries a silt load of 586 million tones yearly. Further with the increase in
industrialization and number of automobiles there is an increased air and water
pollution. This may lead to various unknown diseases and disorders in human
beings as well as animals. The forests (natural or man-made) act as
air-purifier and provide sufficient good air for breathing.
The
excessive destruction of forests reduce the infiltration rate of rainwater and
increase the run-off considerably. This creates problems like soil erosion
leading to droughts and floods. One of the worst flood hit areas is the
Ganges-Brahmaputra plain, where in a few weeks in 1978, floods inundated 66,000
villages, drowned 2000 people and killed 40000 cattle and caused damage
estimated at billions of rupees. The area annually affected by floods average
40 million hectares and is still increasing.
Drought
is another calamity which India has to face as a consequence of deforestation.
According to the Centre of Science and Environment the number of people
affected by drought in India has risen from 18.5 million in 1960 to 191 million
in 1985-86. According to the Ministry of Agriculture in 1985-86, 260 districts,
1490 lakh people 1129 lakh cattle and a cropped area of 435 lakh hectares were
affected by the drought.
Every
year deaths due to heat or cold wave are reported. The forests influence the
climate to a great extent. Not only this food shortage is still prevailing in
many interior rural areas.
Deforestation
is thus a humanitarian problem without any realistic or practical solution. But
it is a certainly, that to improve the forest situation, we must overcome the
greed for short term economic profitability and ensure a sustainable natural
resource base.
VIII.
State wise Forest Coverage
1. Andhra Pradesh
Area of the state =
27.63 m ha
Forest area = 6.39
m ha;
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 23.2%;
Population (1981) =
53.40 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.12 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year) 66.75 m;
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.095 ha.
The
major forest areas are the hilly regions of the Godavari and Krishna river
valleys. Telengana region covering Khammam, Adilabad, Warrangal, mahaboobnagar,
Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts accounts for 50% of the state forest area.
Thirdly three per cent of the forest area is in the costal Andhra region
(Visakapattnam and Prakasam, nellore, Srikakulam and Guntur). Remaining 17% of
forests are in Cuddapah. Chittor and kurnool of Rayalaseema region.
Thirty
seven per cent of the forest is badly denuded and degraded. These forests
contain mostly open thorny scrub type of growth of low density and height. Rest
of the forests are of good quality but 33% of these are in inaccessible area
performing the protective functions.
Timber,
fuel wood, bamboom, tendu leaf and minor forest produce are the main forest
products. Thirdly per cent of th forest is exploited to meet the wood needs of
the State. The National Remote Sensing Agency (NASA)j has estimated that 0.86 m
ha have been lost during the seven year span (1975-82).
2. Arunachal
Pradesh
Area
of the state = 8.35 m ha
Forest area = 5.15
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 61.16 %
Population (1981) =
0.62 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 8.5 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
0.750 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 6.8 ha.
Out
of the 61.7% of the forest area in the State, 10% is reserved forest and the
rest are unclassed state forests. The unclassed State forests with fertile soil
are under shifting cultivation.
The
important forest types of this State are: 1.semi-evergreen, 2.sub-tropical,
3.temperate, 4.sub-alpine, and 5. alpine.
Important
timber species of lower elevation are hollock bola, khokin, naha, duna,
chaplash and chmpak. The species in the higher altitude are; firs, pines and
oaks.
A
remarkable number of medium and small scale industries including saw mills,
plywood and vineer mills, fruit preservation units and il expellers, have been
established. The territory has 1086 units of small scale and 12 units of medium
scale industries. These industries are mainly responsible for rapid destruction
of forests in the State.
3. Assam
Area
of the state = 7.85 m ha
Forest area = 3.07
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 39.1 %
Population (1981) =
19.9 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.15 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
24.87 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.12 ha.
In
the hill areas of Assam, three types of forests, namely state reserved forest,
district council reserved forests and unclassed state forests are found. The
unclassed st ate forests occupy one m ha and the rest comes under reserved
forests.
The
types of forest found in Assam are wet evergreen, semigreen, dry deciduous,
littoral and swamp type. Su-trpical and broad leaved type.
The
forest resources have already depleted by 0.12 m ha in the seven year period
from 1975 to 1982. The major cause of depletion is the demand of 44 plywood
mills and 365 saw mills all over Assam and the firewood demand of urban and
rural areas. Jhum cultivation is another reason for depleting forests. In the
Karbi Anglong district , the area under shifting cultivation is 0.42 m ha and
the total number of tribal families involved is around 45000. in the North
Cachar hill district, 0.038 m ha is under shifting cultivation and families
involved in that area are about 13000.
4.
Bihar
Area
of the state = 17.33 m ha
Forest area = 2.92
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 16.9 %
Population (1981) =
69.82 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.04 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
87.25 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.03 ha.
All
the forests are concentrated in the southern bihar comprising the districts of
Singhbum, Ranchi, Palamau, Hazaribagh, Girisih,Rohtas, Aurangabad, Nawada, Gaya
and Santal Pargana. The forest in the northern Bihar is completely wiped out.
Tropical
dry deciduous and moist deciduous forest are predominant in Bihar, followed by
tropical thorn and evergreen forests.
Forest
of Bihar are mostly inhabited by the tribals whose culture is closely linked
with the forests and theirs is predominantly a forest economy. Also out of 5.4
m ha of highly eroded land, the forest degraded land constitutes about 1.5 m
ha. National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) estimated that forest depletion from
1952-82 due to various purpose amounted to 0.25 m ha.
5. Goa
Area
of the state = 0.37 m ha
Forest area:
Reserved = 0.005 m ha
Unclassed = 0.110 m
ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 31.08 %
Population (1981) =
1.2 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.10 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
1.35 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.085 ha.
Out
of the total forest area of 0.115 m ha 0.089 m ha is owned by Forest Department
and 0.025 m ha is owned by private bodies.
The
forests comprise 0.009 m ha of teak plantation and 0.104 m ha other
non-coniferous broad leaved plantations. The major forest species are deodar,
chirpine, kail, fir, spruce, sal, teak and eucalyptus. Goa lost a substantial
amount of forests since 1952 as given here in table 8
Table
8 Forest area lost in Goa for various purposes (1952-62 to 1982-83)
|
Sl No
|
Purpose
|
Area in ha
|
|
1
|
River valley
projects
|
465.00
|
|
2
|
Agricultural purposes
|
1881.00
|
|
3
|
Miscellaneous
purposes (mining etc.)
|
1881.00
|
|
|
Total
|
4227.00
|
6. Gujarat
Area
of the state = 19.59 m ha
Forest area = 1.96
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 10 %
Population (1981) =
34.08 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.05 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
42.6 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.046 ha.
The
productive forests compose hardly 40% of the total forest area, and are spread
over the districts of Dangs, Valsad, Surat, Bharuch, Vadodara, Punchmahals and
Junagadh. The rest of the forest area includes degraded lands, grasslands and
barren lands.
The
forests are not evenly distributed. Rich forest of Dangs and others are mainly
concentrated in southern parts of the state. The middle and eastern parts bear
bamboo forests but of inferior quality. Rest of the area bears xerophyytic
(desert) and thorny scrub forests 9except patches of Gir and Girnar areas in
Saurastra).
Due to unproductiveness of the forests, the
supply of timber from the forests in 1982 was only 0.13 million cubic metre,
though the demand was 0.86 million cubic metre. Similarly, the demand for fuel
wood was 6.1 million tones but forests could supply only 0.16 million tones.
One of the major causes for the inadequate supply may be diversion of forest
land to other uses.
7. Haryana
Area
of the state =.4.42 m ha
Forest area = 0.16 m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 3.6 %
Population (1981) =
12.58 m
Per capita forest area
(1981) = 0.01 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
12.12 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.0099 ha.
In
Haryana, the forest cover is very poor, and is largely confined to the north
eastern boundary. The state forms a part of the Indo-Gangetic place which is
very fertile and is therefore, utilized for cultivation. Western part of
Haryana shares the border with the desert of Rajasthan, which may encroach into
the productive land of the adjacent areas. To prevent this encroachment, a plan
was formulated three decades ago to develop a 3 km wide shelter-belt along the
border, but it is still in its infancy.
The fertile land cannot be diverted for the forest plantations. So this shelter
belt can, to certain extent, serve as a forest with regard to control of soil
erosion and desertification.
8. Himachal Pradesh
Area
of the state = 5.5 m ha
Forest area = 2.11
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 37.94 %
Population (1981) =
4.2 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.50 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
5.25 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.4 ha.
The
state is almost entirely mountaneous
with alternatives ranging from 460 to 6600 metres above sea level. The dist
ricts of Shimla and Sirmaur have alluvial soil, while the remaining ten
districts have forest and hill soils.
The
types of forests found in Himachal Pradesh are alpine, Himalayan temperate,
subtropical dry evergreen and subtropical pine. Pin, oak, deodar and birch from
the major forest species in the area.
As
per the 1952 National Forest Policy, Himachal Pradesh should have at least 60%
of its geographical area under forest cover, whereas, it is only 37.7% at
present. Further, the forest depletion for various purposes from 1951-82
amounted to 0.59 m ha. If the forest
destruction continues at this rate, Himachal Pradesh will be in the brink of an
ecological disaster.
9. Jammu &
Kashmir
Area
of the state = 22.22 m ha
Forest area = 2.10
m ha
Percentage of forest
area to the area of State = 9.45%
Population (1981) =
5.98 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.35 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
7.37 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.28 ha.
The
state comprises Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh provinces. The forest area under each
province is mentioned in the following table
Table 10 Forest area under different provinces of Jammu and Kashmir.
|
Sl. No
|
Province
|
Geographical area
in (m ha)
|
Forest area
(m ha)
|
% forest area
|
|
1.
|
Kashmir
|
1.58
|
0.89
|
56.5
|
|
2
|
Jammu
|
2.63
|
1.20
|
45.0
|
|
3
|
Ladakh
|
9.58
|
0.04
|
0.48
|
The
most important forest from the economical point of view is the coniferous
forest situated in all the divisions except Leh. It consists of deodar, Kail,
fir, chir and their associates. Out of the total forest area, over 1.3 m ha are
considered noncommercial because of their inaccessibility or being in the
protection range.
The
forest area covers a wide range of forest from subtropical near the plains and
Kandi areas of Jammu to alpine forest. These forests cover thorn and scrub
forest, evergreen coniferous forest and the alpine flora.
10. Karnataka
Area
of the state = 19.17 m ha
Forest area = 3.83
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 19.97 %
Population (1981) =
37.13 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.10 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
46.3 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.082 ha
Forests are not
distributed uniformly all over the state. It is 80.57% in Uttar Kannad district
while Mandya district covers only 3.92 %.
The types of
forests found in Karnataka are tropical evergreen (15.11%), tropical moist
deciduous (15.06%), tropical dry deciduous (18.94%), sub-tropical broad leaved
hill and scrub and thorny. The scrub and thorny forests contribute 21.3% of the
total forests in which the growing stock is very poor. Un-wooded forest type
contributes 29.58 per cent. Some of the important tree species are: teak,
shisham, sandal wood, palas, rosewood, bamboo and hopea. In the state of
Karnataka, the government has monopoly over sandal, wherever it may grow,
whether in private, municipal or government lands.
In
a 30 year period (1952-82), Karnataka lost 0.38 m ha of forest area. As a
consequence of this forest depletion even the fuel demand of 11 million tones
cannot be met.
11. Kerala
Area
of the state = 3.88 m ha
Forest area = 1.12
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 28.9 %
Population (1981) =
25.40 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.04 ha;
Projected population
in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
31.75 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.034 ha.
The
forests are distributed uniformly in the state with Idukki district having the
maximum forest cover of 0.31 m ha. Dense forests of the state cover around 0.76
m ha. Maximum plantations are raised in Kerala and these contribute 0.16 m h of
the forest area. The plantations include teak, wattle, bamboo, cashew,
eucalyptus, rubber, coffee, cardamom and cocoa.
The
forest area of Kerala can be classified into six types tropical evergreen 90.34
m ha), tropical moist deciduous 90.40 m ha), tropical (0.004 m ha), grass lands
(0.01 m ha) and plantations (0.16 m ha). Major forest species are teak, anjile,
maruthy, irul and rosewood.
The
fuel wood supply in the state is very poor and amounts to 78 thousand tones per
year (0.07 m tones), whereas the demand is for 7.5 million tones.
12. Madhya Pradesh
Area
of the state = 44.3 m ha
Forest area = 15.5
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 34.95 %
Population (1981) =
52.13 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.29 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
65.1 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.23 ha.
Madhya
Pradesh has the largest population of Scheduled Tribes in the country, and
maximum coverage of forests is found in eastern region of M.P. It is
interesting to note that the tribal population is also maximum there. For
instance, Baster has a forest area of 2.16 m ha and a tribal population of 1.25
million. Similarly, Bhind has a forest area of 0.009 m ha and a tribal
population of around 1300. Bastar has the highest forest cover followed by
Surguja (1.2 m ha), Bhilaspur (0.79 m ha) and Raipur (0.72).
The
types of forest found in Madhya Pradesh are tropical moist deciduous, tropical
dry deciduous and tropical thorn. Madhya Pradesh is rich in high quality timber
like sal, teak, bajasal, and rosewood. In spite of the dense forests in M.P.,
the average production of wood is o.30 cubic metre/year/ha as compared to 0.94
for U.P., 0.86 for West Bengal and 0.53 for India’s average wood production.
Mahua, diospyros (tendu patta), khair, palas, semal, and chironji are the other
prominent species which yield minor forest products. About 54% of the total
revenue comes from these minor forest produces.
Madhya
Pradesh has the maximum forest cover in India. Unfortunately, the state has
been subjected to immense forest destruction as is evidenced by the fact that
in the last three decades about 1.9 m ha of forest of the State have been
depleted.
13. Maharastra
Area
of the state = 30.77 m ha
Forest area = 6.39
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 20.8 %
Population (1981) =
62.69 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.10 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
78.37 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.08 ha.
The
state can be divided into three physiographic regions: konkan region, Decan
plateau and Tapti valley. Konkan region was once covered with semi-evergreen
and moist decidous vegetation but today largely remains denuded. The Decan
plateau is composed of vast plateau to the east of the western ghats. It is
covered with rich vegetation. Most of the forests are concentrated here.
Maharastra
has five principal types of forestry, namely, tropical evergreen, tropical
moist deciduous, tropical dry deciduous, tropical dry evergreen and littoral
and swamp. White cedar, irul, laurel, haldu, palas and re sandal are some of
the species found in the forests.
The
Southern tropical moist deciduous forests of Amaravati, Chandrapur, Nasik and
some parts of Pune are the Principal source of commercial timber. Thirty four
per cent of the useful forests are utilized for commercial and industrial
purposes and 39% are utilized for fuel and small timber.
The
forests are fast depleting from the state. More than one m ha of forests have
been destroyed during the 1952-82.
14. Manipur
Area
of the state = 2.23 m ha
Forest area = 1.51
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 67.71 %
Population (1981) =
1.43 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 1.07 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
1.75 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.85 ha.
Manipur
is primarily a hilly area and has sufficient forest cover, though it has been
depleted by more than 0.15 m ha since 1952.
Tropical
evergreen, subtropical broad leaved hill and mountain wet temperate types of
forests are found in Manipur. Birch, michellas, white cedar and bamboo are some
of the common tree species.
About
one third of the population of Manipur are tribals. These tribals practice jhum
(shifting cultivation, which is a part of the very ethos of their community.
The annual area under jhum cultivation is 0.09 m ha (5.9% of the forest area)
and the minimum area under jhum cultivation at
any given time is 0.36 m ha 23.75% of the forest area).
Over
65% of the population lives in the valley which is approximately 8% of the
total state area and depends on the hilly region for its basic needs of fuel
and timber.
15. Meghalaya
Area
of the state = 2.25 m ha
Forest area = 0.94
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 41.70 %
Population (1981) =
1.32 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.72 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
1.62 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.58 ha.
Meghalaya
comprises the districts of khasi, Garo and jaintia hill. The state holds one of
the largest reservoirs of tropical forests in India, but this wealth is
beginning to disappear. Now the forest cover is well below the 60% laid down
for the hilly areas by the National Forest Act Policy 1952.
Majority
of the forests come under tropical vegetation. It covers evergreen,
semi-evergreen, decidous forests and grass lands including swamps. Tropical
moist decidous forests cover the largest area. It extends from Garo hills
through northern parts of khasi and jaintia hills. The dense evergreen forests
are mainly found in valley and foot hills and are exploited for commercial
purposes. Sal, teak, hollock, chalta, India coral tree, and samari are some to
the major species of Meghalaya forests. The southern parts of Khasi and Jaintia
hills are covered by tropical wet evergreen forests. Epiphytic growth is very
profuse. Temperate forests are confined to higher evelvation of Khasi and
Jaintia hills. Pine, oak, acacia, chestnut tree and orchids from the important
temperate species.
Extensive
shifting cultivation is practiced in Meghalaya. Annual area under shifting
cultivation comes to around 5.6 % of the forest area. The minimum area under
shifting cultivation at any given time is more than 32 per cent of the forest
area.
16. Mizoram
Area
of the state = 2.1 m ha
Forest area = 0.17
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 8.09 %
Population (1981) =
0.49 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.34 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
0.61 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.27 ha.
Mizoram
which was know as Lusha hill is situated in forest covered mountainous region
forming the watershed between Bangladesh and upper Burma in the south of Assam.
The forests have depleted to such an extent that it is negligible.
Tropical
wet evergreen, tropical semi-evergreen and mountain sub-tropical are the types
of forest found in Mizoram. Of these, the most important one is tropical wet
evergreen forest comprising. Dipterocarpus spp. (gurjun). Arjun, chaplash,
michelia, canes and bamboos. Tropica semi-evergreen comprises champak, kanak,
red cedar, (toona) and bamboo.
Shifting
cultivation is popular in Mizoram too. Approximately 4% of the forest area is
annually brought under shifting cultivation. The fallow period is only 3 to 4
years.
17. Nagaland
Area
of the state = 1.65 m ha
Forest area = 0.28
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 16.96 %
Population (1981) =
0.77 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.36 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
0.96 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.29 ha.
The
whole of Nagaland state is hilly. Therefore, the 17% of area under forests is
very low. Land slides are very common and soil erosion is heavy.
The
village forests constitute 72% of the total forest area and they are owned by
the villagers. The requirements of firewood, timber and other products are met
from these. The villagers and the village communities have the customary right
to practise shifting cultivation in these forest areas. Earlier the fallow
period was 15 years. Gradually, as the population increased and the forest area
decreased, the land was left fallow for a period of 4 to 9 years. About 9% of
the forest area is under shifting cultivation at any given time. In addition
990 ha of forest land is under encroachment for various purpose. The moist
temperate, dry temperate and subtropical broad-leaved forests are common to
Nagaland. Bamboo is the most important tree for the Nagas. It is the main
component for the construction of their huts; it is useful as an article of
food and is a commercial product used in paper mills.
Two
big forest based industries have been established, one a plywood factory at
Tuli, and the other a paper mill at Tuli with 100 tonnes per capacity.
18. Orissa
Area
of the state = 15.57 m ha
Forest area = 6.02
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 38.8.96 %
Population (1981) =
26.37 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.22 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
48.5 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.12 ha.
Though
official figures show 38.8% as forest area, recent satellite studies have shown
that only 20% of the total area is under tree cover.
Koraput
region of the state has the maximum forest coverage. But percentage wise,
Ganjam leads with 55% of the forest area, closely followed by Phulbani (52.9%)
and kalahandi (49%).
The
main types of forest area; dry deciduous forests which cover almost 50% of the
total area, and moist deciduous forests which cover 30% of the area. The
remaining 20% consists of various types like the semi-evergreen, the littoral
forests and the tidal swamp forests. Predominantly found are dry and moist sal
forest. Teak, bamboo, kusum and mahua are othr important forest species.
Shifting
cultivation is extensively practiced in Orissa and compared to other states in
India it has 44.5% of the forest area under shifting cultivation at any given
time. Also 8600 ha of forest lands are under encroachment in the State.
19. Punjab
Area
of the state = 5.04 m ha
Forest area = 0.26
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 5.15 %
Population (1981) =
16.67 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.015 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
20.8 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.012 ha.
Physically
the State may be divided into two parts- sub-Shivalik strip and Sutlej-Ghaggar
plain. Sutlej plain is highly fertile as it is formed by the tributaries of
Indus, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej and Ghaggar. So this land is used for extensive
cultivation and diverting it for forestry purposes is not possible.
Most
of the forests are confined to the Sub-Shivalik strip. More sub-tropical dry
evergreen, tropical thorn and Himalayan temperate forest types are found. The
only way to increase trees is to plant them on road sides and waste lands.
20. Rajasthan
Area
of the state = 34.22 m ha
Forest area = 3.44
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 10 %
Population (1981) =
34.26 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.10 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
42.7 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.08 ha.
Rajasthan
shows a great contrast from one area to another. The western Rajashan is
characterized by typical desert conditions and forms the large area in the
state. Tropical dry deciduous and tropical thorn forests are found in this area
which constitutes 10% of the state’s total forest area. The Aravalli hill
region contains most of the forests of Rajashan. Districtwise, maximum forest
area is in Udaipur (0.58 m ha), followed by Kota (0.36 m ha), Sawai Madhopur
(0.27 m ha and Chittorgarh (0.24 m ha)
Forests
in Rajasthan can be classified into following types: tropical dry scrub forests
and bamboo forests (21%), teak, dhak, bamboo, khar, salai and tendu form the
major forest species.
The forests are depleting at a high
rate in the state. Encroachment alone amounted to 22,000 ha. In 1984-85 alone,
the forest area diverted to non-forest purpose was 610 ha. The fuel wood
requirement of the state is also high. In 1981 5.1 million tones of fuel wood
was required but only 10% of the need was met.
21. Tamil Nadu
Area
of the state = 13. m ha
Forest area = 2.17
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 16.6 %
Population (1981) =
48.4 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.044 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
60.5 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.03 ha.
Tamil
Nadu is bound on the west by western ghat hill ranges, on the north by the
Nilgiri hills, on the east by the Bank of Bengal and on the South by India
ocean. The area under forests is far below the accepted norms of 33% of the
land area. Productivity of a large part of these forests, especially in the
semi-arid plains, has been poor.
In
Tamil Nadu, Dharmapuri has the maximum forest cover of 0.36 m ha while the
nilgiris has denser forests covering 58.8% of its land area. The forest types
are tropical evergreen, tropical dry deciduous, tropical thorn, subtropical
broad leaved and montaine wet temperate. The slopes of the Western ghats are
covered with heavy evergreen forests. Maximum variation in the flora of the
country is found in the Nilgiri hills.
More
than 75% of the tribals of Tamil nadu live in the midst of natural sandal
forests of javadhi hills, Shivaraj kolli hills, chitheri hills and Pachmalai.
Other common species are teak, wattle, red sandle wood and axlewood.
22. Uttar Pradesh
Area
of the state = 29.44 m ha
Forest area = 5.11
m ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 17.34 %
Population (1981) =
110.85 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.046 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
138.5 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.036 ha.
Uttar
Pradesh can be divided into three district regions: (1) northern mountains, (2)
southern hills and plateau, and (3) the Ganga plains. The population explosion
of the state and its fertile alluvial plains have pushed the forests to the
foot hills of Himalayas and the southern hills. All the forest types are found
in the state with a varied flora.
Chir
forest reaches its largest dimensions in Tons valley (Uttar kashi district).
Large trees are also found in the Pindar valley in Chamoli district.
23. West Bengal
Area
of the state = 8.78ha
Forest area =
1.18 ha
Percentage of
forest area to the area of State = 13.43%
Population (1981) =
54.1 m
Per capita forest
area (1981) = 0.022 ha;
Projected
population in 1991 (at 2.5% increase per year)
68.12 m
Estimated per
capita forest area (1991) = 0.017 ha.
West
Bengal has two natural divisions, the Himalyan north comprising the districts
of Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar and the alluvial plain that lies
south of it.
Forest
types of West Bengal
A. Moist tropical
forests
1.Riverine forests
2.Plain forests
3.Tropical forests
4.hill forests
5.Savanna forests
6.conifer and rhododendron forests
B. Moist savai type
forests
1.littoral forests
2.Fresh water swamps
C. Dry deciduous
forest.
D. minor forests-
canal bank, roadsides plantation and scrubs.
West
Bengal is characterized by high population density and high degree of
industrialization with a concentration of wood based industries. Demand for
forest produce is , therefore, substantial. Out of 13.55 of forests in the
State only 55 is productive. Though West Bengal is the second largest producer
of coal the majority of the people depend on
firewood for domestic fuel requirements because of poor economic
conditions.
IX. Conclusion
Forests in most of the states in India are qualitatively and quantitatively very poor. Sikkin, Tripura and the union Territories are not dealt with here because of inadequate data. But the trend in these places too remains similar to the other states/union territories, except Andaman and Nicobar islands where the forests are still very lush. But there too, the deforestation is so high that in no time the forests may become like those in other states.
Rapid destruction of forests results in natural calamities, soil
erosion and also contributes to the green house effect. Plantations cannot
substitute for the natural forests (as forests are ecosystems in itself), but
it can reduce the pressure on natural forests for timber, fuel, fodder and
other forest products. Therefore, opting for plantation will be beneficial to
the mankind as well as to the environment in the long run.
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